Characterisation of Fires Caused by Batteries in WEEE: Survey Results from the WEEE Management Chain – Part A
Introduction
The increasing use of lithium-ion batteries in electrical and electronic equipment has created significant challenges for the collection and treatment of WEEE. When batteries remain inside discarded equipment, handling and treatment processes can expose them to mechanical damage or short circuits, potentially triggering thermal events and fires. The report noted that the growing number of products containing high-energy-density batteries was expected to increase this risk for the waste management sector.
Against this background, industry associations representing recyclers, producer responsibility organisations and electrical and electronic equipment manufacturers established a roundtable in 2019 to examine battery-related fire risks. EERA, EuRIC, the WEEE Forum and WEEELABEX subsequently participated in a European survey designed to characterise fires associated with batteries in WEEE and collect information on good practices for reducing these risks.
This Part A report, prepared by EuRIC and the WEEE Forum and published in May 2020, presented findings from 109 completed questionnaires covering facilities involved in collection, sorting, transport and treatment. Its purpose was to provide greater insight into the frequency, characteristics, location, severity and consequences of battery-related fires across the WEEE management chain. The authors emphasised that the survey was descriptive and not statistically representative of the European WEEE sector as a whole.
Why batteries create fire risks in WEEE
Lithium-ion batteries combine high energy density with sensitivity to mechanical damage, short circuits and elevated temperatures. When damaged, a battery can enter thermal runaway, a self-reinforcing rise in temperature that can result in fire or explosion. This creates particular risks when batteries remain inside electrical and electronic equipment entering the waste management chain.
WEEE undergoes numerous handling and treatment operations before materials can be recovered. Collection, loading and unloading, storage, sorting, dismantling, crushing, pressing and shredding can expose batteries to impacts or other mechanical stresses. Batteries may also be difficult to identify because they are increasingly incorporated into small electrical appliances and other products. Although the WEEE Directive requires batteries to be removed from WEEE, they can remain present at different stages of the treatment chain.
The report also highlighted the growing quantities and diversity of lithium-ion batteries entering the market. As more battery-powered products reached end of life, the authors expected the quantities of lithium-ion batteries entering WEEE streams to increase.
The challenge extends beyond separately collected WEEE. Small electrical equipment containing batteries can also enter mixed residual waste, making batteries harder to identify and manage before mechanical processing. This combination of increasing battery volumes, difficult identification and exposure to mechanical stress creates fire risks throughout the WEEE management chain.
What the European survey examined
The European survey was designed to build a clearer picture of battery-related fires across the WEEE management chain. It had two objectives: Part A sought to characterise fires associated with batteries in WEEE, while Part B focused on identifying good practices for preventing and managing these incidents. This report presented the results of Part A.
The questionnaire targeted facilities involved in collection, sorting, transport and recycling of WEEE containing batteries and waste batteries. A total of 109 completed questionnaires were received from respondents representing different stages of the WEEE value chain and facilities with varying treatment capacities. Respondents came from 20 EU and EFTA countries, providing broad geographical coverage.
The survey examined where thermal incidents occurred, the WEEE streams involved, their frequency and severity, and the stages of collection and treatment where incidents started. It also gathered information on ignition causes, methods used to control incidents, resulting damage, associated costs and insurance coverage.
The report analysed both thermal incidents reported during 2018 and respondents' most severe battery-related fire during the 2016–2019 period, allowing the authors to distinguish frequent, relatively minor events from less frequent but potentially high-impact fires.
Which WEEE streams were most affected?
The survey found that battery-related thermal incidents were particularly associated with mixed WEEE and small electrical appliances, waste streams in which batteries may remain embedded in discarded products. Among respondents reporting thermal incidents in 2018, mixed WEEE was the most frequently identified stream, followed by small domestic appliances.
The pattern was slightly different for the most severe fires reported during the 2016–2019 period. Small appliances were the most frequently identified waste stream in these cases, although mixed WEEE also featured prominently. The report therefore identified both streams as particularly relevant to understanding battery-related fire risks.
This finding reflected a broader challenge highlighted by the study: batteries are not always collected separately or removed before equipment progresses through the WEEE management chain. Small battery-powered products may also be discarded incorrectly in mixed residual waste, further increasing the likelihood that batteries enter waste handling and mechanical treatment processes unnoticed.
The survey did not establish that a particular WEEE stream inherently caused fires. Rather, its results showed where respondents most frequently encountered thermal incidents, providing evidence about the waste streams in which battery-related fire risks were most visible at the time of the study.
Where fires occurred in the WEEE management chain
The survey found that battery-related thermal incidents occurred at multiple stages of the WEEE management chain, from collection and transport through storage, dismantling and mechanical treatment. However, some stages were reported more frequently than others.
For incidents reported in 2018, shredding was the single most frequently identified stage, mentioned by 24 respondents. Storage at treatment facilities was mentioned 18 times, storage at sorting and logistics centres 15 times, manual dismantling and depollution 13 times, and unloading at treatment-site storage areas 12 times. Respondents could select more than one stage, so these figures should not be interpreted as shares of all incidents.
To provide a broader picture, the report grouped individual activities into five stages. On this basis, 39% of responses concerned activities at treatment facilities before mechanical treatment, including reception, storage, unloading, dismantling and sorting. Transport between collection and sorting or logistics accounted for 30%, while mechanical treatment and shredding represented 21%. Collection activities accounted for 4% and post-shredding storage for 6%.
The pattern for the most severe fires was broadly similar, although shredding featured more prominently among the more frequent 2018 incidents. The survey also indicated that some thermal events started during unloading and on-site movement of WEEE, where equipment could be subjected to tipping, sliding or handling by machinery.
These findings showed that battery fire risk was not confined to the shredder. Storage, handling, transport and dismantling were also important points of exposure, reinforcing the need to consider fire prevention across the entire WEEE management chain.
Frequency and severity of thermal incidents
The survey indicated that battery-related thermal incidents were frequent and increasing among the facilities that reported experiencing them. Of the 109 respondents, 58 reported a thermal incident associated with batteries at their facilities in 2018. Of these 58 respondents, 76% said that the frequency of thermal incidents had increased during the previous two years.
The incidents varied considerably in severity. The survey covered events ranging from hot spots, smoke and sparks to slow-burning fires, intense fires and explosions. Hot spots, smoke and sparks were reported more frequently than explosions. Among the 52 respondents who provided information on intense fires and explosions in 2018, the most common answers were zero incidents, reported by 13 respondents, and one incident, reported by 12. After excluding two outlying responses that did not meet the survey criteria, the report calculated an average of approximately five to six intense fires and explosions per respondent per year within this sample.
The picture changed when the survey examined the most severe incidents reported during 2016–2019. Thirty-nine of the 109 respondents reported a severe fire during this period. Of these severe cases, 27 respondents, or 69%, described the incident as an intense fire, while eight reported an explosion. Respondents could select more than one characteristic for an incident.
The results therefore showed a combination of relatively frequent minor thermal events and less frequent but potentially severe fires, illustrating the different levels of battery-related risk faced by WEEE operators.
What caused the fires?
The survey identified damaged batteries as the principal reported cause of battery-related thermal incidents. Among respondents who provided information on the causes of their 2018 incidents, 32 out of 49 identified damaged batteries as the most frequent cause. Undamaged batteries were the second most frequently reported cause, although by a much smaller number of respondents.
The same pattern appeared in the most severe incidents reported during the 2016–2019 period. Seventy-five per cent of the 38 respondents who answered the question on ignition causes identified damaged batteries as the cause of their most severe fire. Some respondents could not establish a definitive cause, while others suspected batteries despite lacking direct evidence.
The findings are consistent with the operational risks described elsewhere in the report. During collection and treatment, batteries can be exposed to mechanical shocks or short circuits, which can trigger thermal runaway in lithium-ion batteries. Activities such as unloading, dismantling, crushing, pressing and shredding can therefore create conditions in which an embedded or unidentified battery becomes damaged.
The report did not establish the precise technical cause of every incident. Its evidence was based on respondents' knowledge of events at their facilities. Nevertheless, the survey showed a clear pattern: damaged batteries were overwhelmingly the most frequently identified source of ignition in both routine thermal incidents and severe fires.
Damage and operational consequences
For most thermal incidents reported in 2018, the consequences were relatively contained. The most frequently selected response was that only the equipment where the fire started was affected. Damage to containment measures, site surfaces, equipment, buildings and surrounding waste was reported less frequently, while physical injuries to personnel were rare.
The consequences were substantially greater for the most severe fires. Among 38 respondents providing information on damage, 19 reported that surrounding WEEE was affected. Fourteen reported damage to buildings, while 13 reported damage to site surfaces and equipment. Evacuation was necessary in 13 cases. Two respondents reported physical injuries to workers.
Severe incidents could also disrupt operations. Respondents reported cases involving site closure, suspension of site operations or production-line stoppages, generally lasting several days and seldom more than a week. However, not every respondent reporting a severe fire experienced these consequences.
Duration also differed according to severity. Sixty-eight per cent of respondents indicated that most of their 2018 fires lasted less than one hour. Severe fires generally lasted longer: almost half lasted between one and six hours, while nine respondents reported incidents lasting one day.
Costs and insurance
Battery-related fires also created significant financial exposure for WEEE operators. The survey asked respondents to estimate costs associated with damaged waste, fire-extinguishing measures, repairs to affected areas and interruptions to operations. Because respondents supplied open cost estimates, the report grouped the figures into ranges for analysis.
For the thermal incidents reported in 2018, the report estimated an average total annual cost of approximately €190,000 per respondent among the 34 companies that provided usable cost information. The authors cautioned that costs varied considerably between respondents, with a reported standard deviation of €444,000. The figure should therefore be understood as an average within this limited survey sample rather than an estimate for the European WEEE industry as a whole.
The financial consequences of severe fires were substantially higher. Based on 26 respondents, the average reported cost of the most severe fire was approximately €1.3 million, again with considerable variation between individual cases. The questionnaire did not provide a detailed breakdown of these costs by cause.
Insurance did not necessarily absorb these losses. Of 51 respondents answering the insurance question for 2018 incidents, 41% said insurance intervention was not required in most cases, while 19% reported full coverage, 16% partial coverage and 18% no coverage. The report also noted broader concerns among WEEE and waste-battery operators about access to adequate insurance.
Key conclusions
The survey provided evidence that battery-related fires were a significant operational issue across the WEEE management chain. Thermal incidents occurred during collection, transport, storage, dismantling and mechanical treatment, demonstrating that the risk was not confined to a single activity or treatment stage.
Among respondents experiencing thermal incidents, the survey indicated a combination of frequent minor events and less frequent severe fires. Damaged batteries emerged as the principal reported source of ignition, including in 75% of responses concerning the cause of the most severe incidents.
Although many incidents were contained and caused limited damage, severe fires could affect buildings, equipment and surrounding WEEE, require evacuation and interrupt operations. The financial consequences could also be substantial. The report estimated average costs of approximately €190,000 for reported 2018 incidents and €1.3 million for severe fires, based on the smaller subsets of respondents that provided cost data.
The study concluded that further work was needed to understand the phenomenon and develop effective prevention measures. It recommended further research and considered the feasibility of an EU-wide observatory for battery fires to monitor developments over time.
These findings describe the survey sample and should not be interpreted as statistically representative of the entire European WEEE sector.
About the study
Characterisation of Fires Caused by Batteries in WEEE: Survey Results from the WEEE Management Chain – Part A was published in May 2020 and prepared by EuRIC and the WEEE Forum, with contributions from an industry roundtable involving EERA, WEEELABEX and other stakeholders.
The study drew on 109 completed questionnaires from facilities across 20 EU and EFTA countries involved in different stages of WEEE collection, sorting, transport and treatment. It examined the frequency, severity, causes, locations, operational impacts, costs and insurance implications of thermal incidents associated with batteries in WEEE.
The report formed Part A of a two-part study. Part B examined good practices used by operators to prevent and manage battery-related fires. The authors emphasised that the survey was descriptive and was not intended to provide statistically representative results for the European WEEE sector as a whole.
Read the full report
Read the full Characterisation of Fires Caused by Batteries in WEEE: Survey Results from the WEEE Management Chain – Part A for the complete survey methodology, detailed findings and analysis of battery-related thermal incidents across the European WEEE management chain.
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